Acknowledgements
List of Figures
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Aim of this Study
1.2 Cognitive Linguistic Viewpoint
1.3 Methods of this Study
1.4 Significance of Including Appear in the Analysis
1.4.1 Cognitive Division of Labor between Look and Appear
1.4.2 Historical Development of the CPV Construction
1.4.3 The Order of Look and Appear in the Same Text
1.4.4 Look and Appear in Comparative Constructions
1.4.5 The Relationship between Pragmatic Requirements and the Selection of Look or Appear
1.4.6 Why Sound, but Not Listen?
1.5 Significance of Observing Contextual Data
1.6 Overview
CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Framework of Cognitive Linguistics
2.2.1 Symbolic View of Grammar
2.2.2 Conceptualization
2.2.3 Usage-based Model
2.3 Construal: Core Concepts of the Present Study
2.3.1 Prominence: Profiling
2.3.2 Perspective
2.3.3 Subjectivity / Objectivity
2.3.4 Subjectification
2.4 The Notion of Construction
2.4.1 Constructions in Langacker (1987a, 2005, 2008)
2.4.2 Constructions in Goldberg (1995, 2006)
2.4.3 Constructions as Prototype Categories
2.4.4 Concept of Construction in This Study
CHAPTER 3 Properties of the Copulative Perception Verb Construction and Studies Regarding Perception Verbs
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Unique Properties of the CPV Construction
3.3 Argument Structure and Participant Roles
3.4 Form and Meaning of the CPV Construction
3.5 Previous Studies Regarding Perception Verbs
3.5.1 Rogers (1971)
3.5.1.1 Cognitive Verbs
3.5.1.2 Active Verbs
3.5.1.3 Descriptive Verbs
3.5.2 Viberg (1984)
3.5.2.1 Verbs of Perception in English
3.5.2.2 Semantic Extensions across Sensory Modalities
3.6 Summary
CHAPTER 4 Previous Studies of the CPV Construction
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Taniguchi (1997, 2005)
4.2.1 Subject Alignment in CPVs
4.2.2 Two Types of Perceptual Experience
4.2.3 Idiosyncratic Properties of the CPVs from the Viewpoint of Cognitive Grammar
4.2.4 Historical Development
4.2.5 The Origin of the Adjectival Complement
4.2.6 Extension to Uni-directional Perception Verbs by the Shift of the Profiled Relation
4.2.7 Backgrounding of Experiencer: Genericity and Subjectification
4.2.8 General Copula: Be and Seem vs. CPVs
4.2.9 Extensions from CPVs to Action Verbs
4.2.10 Problems with Taniguchi's (1997, 2005) Arguments
4.3 Honda (2005)
4.3.1 An Ecological Approach to Self Perception
4.3.2 Point of View
4.3.3 Communality of Point-of-Observation
4.3.4 The Semantics of First Person Pronouns
4.3.5 Affordance-Theoretic Approach to Middle and CPV Constructions
4.3.5.1 Middle Construction
4.3.5.2 CPV Construction
4.3.5.3 Verbs of the Middle and CPV Constructions
4.3.6 Problems with Honda's (2005) Arguments
4.4 Summary
CHAPTER 5 Unique Properties of the CPV Construction and Copulative Perception Verbs
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Unique Properties of the CPV Construction
5.3 Copular Verbs
5.3.1 Quirk et al. (1985)
5.3.2 Visser (1963)
5.3.3 Horton (1996)
5.3.3.1 Non-Copulas (Action Verb + Adjective)
5.3.3.2 Quasi Copulas
5.3.3.3 True Copulas
5.3.4 Differences between Seem/Appear and Other CPVs
5.3.4.1 Impersonal Forms and Infinitival be
5.3.4.2 Infinitives
5.3.4.3 Existential There, Hedge Expressions and Substitution
5.3.4.4 Like with the Meaning of as if
5.3.4.5 Summary of Section 5.3.4
5.4 Seem and Appear as CPVs
5.4.1 Original Meanings of Seem and Appear
5.4.1.1 Seem as a Subjective Verb
5.4.1.2 Appear as a Subjective Verb
5.4.2 Seem as a CPV
5.4.3 Appear as a CPV
5.5 Classifications of Perception Verbs in Previous Studies
5.5.1 Rogers (1971)
5.5.2 Viberg (1984)
5.5.3 Gisborne (2010)
5.5.4 Quirk et al. (1985)
5.5.5 Kashino (1998, 2012)
5.6 Classification of Perception Verbs in this Study
5.6.1 Occurrence/Emission Perception Verbs
5.6.2 Active Perception Verbs
5.6.3 Passive Perception Verbs
5.6.4 Specific Examples of Perception Verbs
5.6.5 Metonymy in the CPV Construction
5.6.5.1 Metonymy
5.6.5.2 CPV Selection in Terms of Metonymy
5.7 Summary
CHAPTER 6 Cognitive Division of Labor between Look and Appear in the CPV Construction
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Difference of the Mode of Cognition between Look and Appear
6.3 Limitation by the Lexical or Sentence-level Observation of Distribution between Look and Appear
6.4 Significance of Adopting Contextual Data in the Cognitive Linguistic Study
6.5 Fact of Language Use that Look and Appear are Selectively Used in the CPV Construction
6.6 Cognitive Division of Labor between Look and Appear in the CPV Construction
6.6.1 The Way of the Cognitive Division of Labor Works
6.6.2 Data Analysis
6.6.2.1 Text A (= 105)
6.6.2.2 Text B (=106)
6.6.2.3 Text C (=107)
6.6.2.4 Text D (=108)
6.6.2.5 Text E (=109)
6.6.3 Expected Refutations
6.6.4 Results of a Survey
6.7 Summary
CHAPTER 7 Cognitive Division of Labor Due to the Development of the Construction
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Two Types of NP in Subject Position within One Construction
7.3 Two Patterns in the Development of CPVs
7.4 Historical Development of CPVs
7.4.1 Extension Process from Seem/Appear to Smell/Sound
7.4.2 Extension Process from Seem/Appear to Look/Taste/Feel
7.4.2.1 Middle Construction
7.4.2.2 Historical Development of the Middle Construction
7.4.2.3 Characteristics of the Middle Construction
7.4.2.4 Interim Summary
7.5 What Made the Cognitive Division of Labor between Look and Appear Possible?
7.6 Overview of Historical Development of Seem/Appear and the Other Five Perception Verbs
7.7 Intra-Constructional and Inter-Constructional Development of the CPV Construction
7.7.1 Secondary Division of Labor (Intra-Constructional): Loom, Ring, and Listen as Perception Verbs
7.7.2 Extension of the CPV Construction to the Middle Construction (Inter-Constructional)
7.8 Summary
CHAPTER 8 The Order of Look and Appear in the Same Text
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Method of Analysis
8.3 The Order of Occurrence of Look and Appear and the Underlying cognitive processes
8.3.1 The Order of Occurrence of Look and Appear
8.3.2 Preferential Looking
8.3.3 The Relationship between Selection of Look and Preferential Looking
8.4 Data Analysis
8.4.1 Look Preceding Appear
8.4.1.1 Data of Look Preceding Appear and Cognitive Motivation
8.4.1.2 The Meaning of Look Preceding Appear
8.4.2 Appear Preceding Look
8.4.2.1 The Meaning of Appear Preceding Look
8.4.2.2 Data of Appear Preceding Look and Cognitive Motivation
8.4.3 Difference in Text Genre with Look-First and Appear-First
8.5 Summary
CHAPTER 9 Selective Use between Look/Appear: Pragmatic Requirements
9.1 Introduction
9.2 “You look cold” vs. “I appear cold”: The Meaning of Appear
9.3 Look and Appear in Comparative Constructions
9.4 Distribution in Terms of Interpersonal Communication
9.4.1 Is “Appear Beautiful” an Inappropriate Expression?
9.4.2 Person Bias in Look and Appear
9.4.3 Negative Meaning of Adjectival Complements with Look and Appear in Interpersonal Communication
9.4.4 CPVs vs. Copular Verb Be
9.5 Summary
CHAPTER 10 Two Different Perception Verb Constructions for Visual Perception: Two Different Patterns of Construal
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Previous Studies on Perception Verb Complements
10.2.1 Carlson (1977, 1980)
10.2.2 Jäger (1999, 2001)
10.2.3 Kirsner and Thompson (1976)
10.3 Characteristics of the Transitive Perception Verb (TPV) Construction
10.3.1 Adjective Types and Perception Verb Tenses
10.3.2 The TPV Construction at the Sentence Level
10.3.3 The TPV Construction at the Discourse Level
10.3.4 Preference for Perceptual Moment Domain, Person, and Adjective
10.3.5 Form and Meaning of the TPV Construction
10.4 Differences in Construal between the CPV and TPV Constructions
10.4.1 Perceptual Process
10.4.2 Tendency in the Perceptual Moment Domain: Pastness
10.4.3 Immediacy and Displacement
10.4.4 Perspective from Inside or Outside
10.4.5 Self-Objectification and Points of Observation
10.4.6 Degree of Subjectivity
10.4.7 Non-Visual Perception Verbs
10.5 Summary
CHAPTER 11 Adjectival Complement in the CPV and TPV Constructions: Property Description in the Perception Verb Constructions
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Adjectives: Interactions between Cognitive Subject and Cognitive Object
11.2.1 Cognitive Patterns of Adjectival Expressions
11.2.2 The ‘Kaleidoscopic’ Nature of Adjectives
11.2.3 Tow Functions of Adjectives
11.3 Previous Studies about Property Description
11.3.1 Kageyama (2006, 2009b)
11.3.2 Masuoka (1987, 2008, 2013)
11.3.3 Nitta (2012)
11.4 Cognitive Processes in Property Descriptions
11.4.1 Causal Attribution
11.4.2 Cognitive Processes in the Property Description of Tall
11.4.2.1 Tall : Profiling the Relation between its Landmark and Trajector
11.4.2.2 Tall : Relation to Specific Frames
11.5 Property in the Perception Verb Constructions
11.5.1 Acceptability of Property Descriptions in the CPV Construction
11.5.2 Unacceptability of Property Descriptions in the TPV Construction
11.6 Unconventional TPV and CPV Constructions
11.6.1 A TPV Construction that Does Describe Property
11.6.2 A CPV Construction that Cannot Describe Property
11.7 Summary
CHAPTER 12 Conclusion
References
Index
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